Touring Montral An Easy Bilingual Story

Check out this easy learn French in context story  about  touring the bilingual city of Montrà ©al, in Quà ©bec, Canada. Visiting Montreal Si on veut parler francÃŒ §ais sans partir d’AmeÃŒ rique du Nord, il ny a pas dendroit meilleur que la province de QueÃŒ bec. Pendant un seÃŒ jour de ​troisnuitsaÌ€ MontreÃŒ al il y a plusieurs anneÃŒ es avec ma femme et nos deux ados, nous avons deÃŒ couvert aÌ€ notre grande surprise une ville qui est vraiment bilingue. Cest un site parfait pour pratiquer son francÃŒ §ais. (Voyez ce dialogue en franà §ais quà ©bà ©cois pour vous amuser un peu) If one wants to speak French without leaving North America, there is no better place than the province of Quà ©bec. During a stay of 3 nights in Montreal several years ago with my wife and our two teenagers, we discovered to our great surprise a city that is truly bilingual. It’s a perfect place to practice French. (See this dialog in Quebecois French to have a bit of fun). Pendant notre premià ¨re aprà ¨s-midi, nous sommes entrà ©s dans un petit restaurant italien, qui à ©tait trà ¨s accueillant et charmant, pour dà ©jeuner. Quand la serveuse est venue à   notre table pour prendre notre commande, mon fils et moi l’avons saluà ©e en franà §ais et ma femme et ma fille l’ont saluà ©e en anglais. Elle nous a demandà © si nous prà ©fà ©rions qu’elle nous parle en franà §ais ou en anglais. Je lui ai rà ©pondu que mon fils et moi prà ©fà ©rions parler en franà §ais mais que les autres prà ©fà ©raient parler en anglais. La serveuse a ri et nous a dit  « oui, bien sà »r  » et elle a fait exactement à §a pendant le reste du repas. During our first afternoon, we entered a small Italian restaurant that was very inviting and charming for lunch. When the server came to our table to take our order, my son and I greeted her in French and my wife and daughter greeted her in English. She asked us if we preferred that she speak to us in French or in English. I responded to her that my son and I preferred to speak French but the others preferred to speak English. She laughed and said, â€Å"Yes, of course†, and she did exactly that during the rest of the meal. Avec de nombreux musà ©es merveilleux, des parcs et des jardins abondants, et des bà ¢timents historiques, il y a beaucoup de choses à   voir et à   faire à   Montrà ©al. Mais, un des sites qui à ©tait trà ¨s intà ©ressant pour nous à ©tait l’ancien site des Jeux olympiques d’à ©tà © de 1976. Il y a un arrà ªt de mà ©tro prà ¨s du parc olympique et nous somme sorti du mà ©tro là  -bas. With numerous wonderful museums, abundant parks and gardens, and historic buildings, there is much to see and do in Montreal. But one of the places that was very interesting to us was the former site of the summer Olympic Games of 1976. There is a metro stop near the Olympic park and we got off the metro there. L’ancien stade olympique est le plus grand du Canada. Son architecture est vraiment unique et on est immà ©diatement frappà © par la tour imposante qui le surplombe et qui soutient partiellement le toit. On peut monter au sommet de la tour par un funiculaire et accà ©der à   un observatoire. De là  , on a une vue à ©poustouflante du centre-ville et des environs de Montrà ©al. The former Olympic stadium is the largest in Canada. Its architecture is truly unique and one is immediately struck by the imposing tower which overlooks it and which partially supports the roof. One can go up to the summit of the tower by a funicular and reach a vantage point. There, one has an astounding view of Montreal’s downtown and the surrounding area. Aprà ¨s notre descente de la tour, nous nous sommes promenà ©s dans les jardins botaniques, l’insectarium, le biodà ´me et d’autres attractions. L’exhibition des pingouins dans le biodà ´me à ©tait probablement notre favorite et elle vaut à   elle seule le dà ©placement ! After our descent from the tower, we wandered through the botanical gardens, the insectarium, the biodome, and some other attractions. The penguins’ exhibition in the biodome was probably our favorite and it is worth a trip itself! Plus tard, en cherchant quelque part à   manger, nous sommes tombà ©s sur un resto qui faisait la promotion de plus de cinquante varià ©tà ©s de poutine. Nous n’avions jamais entendu parler de la poutine. C’est un plat de frites qui sont couvertes de fromage ou de sauce ou de quoi que ce soit le chef dà ©cide de mettre dessus. Nous avons essayà © plusieurs varià ©tà ©s de poutine et nous les avons trouvà ©es copieuses, originales, et c’à ©tait amusant de manger un truc absolument quà ©bà ©cois (bien que trà ¨s touristique). Later, while looking for somewhere to eat, we stumbled upon a restaurant which offered more than 50 varieties of poutine. We had never heard of poutine. It is a plate of French fries which are covered with cheese, sauce, or whatever the chef decides to put on top. We tried several varieties of poutine and found it very hearty, original, and it was fun to eat something absolutely Quà ©bà ©cois (although very touristy).

Good And Evil In Rudolfo Anayas Bless Me Utiima - 1116 Words

Revenge is often a prominent element present in numerous plots. Characters like Heathcliff or Chillingworth have sought retribution in the strongest ways against those who have wronged them. In Rudolfo Anaya’s novel Bless Me Ultima the concept of revenge also plays a hefty role. Through the eyes of Antonio, a young boy who starts making inquiries about the world, the audience can make a connection between the forces of good and evil. In order to show that life is more complicated than the two categories, Anaya uses the contrasts of the characters Ultima and Tenorio in a battle of revenge to show that the line between good and evil does not always exist. In the novel, the character Ultima was overall considered good by Antonio; however,†¦show more content†¦(Anaya 134). Ultima takes the saying â€Å"eye for an eye† quote quite literal. That being said, this goes back to Antonio’s grasp on forgiveness. If Ultima was purely good, she would not have taken revenge on the Trementios. She played the part of karma herself, which then spiraled into more hate between Ultima and Tenorio. In contrast to Ultima, Tenorio is often regarded as evil without the need for much thought. After murdering Narciso, Tenorio did not receive a kind penalty for his actions. The townspeople simply dismissed Narciso’s death because he â€Å"was the town drunk† so he â€Å"had died during one of his drinks† (Anaya 177). Due to this character, Antonio realized that life is not always fair. From Antonio’s perspective, Tenorio did not deserve forgiveness for killing Narciso. Antonio became biased for obvious reasons; however, he overlooked the justification for Tenorio’s forgiveness. Like Narciso, the deaths of Tenorio’s daughters were left unpunished. Tenorio was also described as â€Å"an evil man† by Antonio’s mother before his character was properly introduced (Anaya 89). Despite labeling him that, an explanation for why he is evil is never provided by her. Tenorio was called evil, but for what reasons? Is it just simply because he is in a family of witches? While his actions can register as wicked, his intentions for revenge against Ultima are regarded as good. Ultima was responsible for why â€Å"Tenorio’s daughter died† because of â€Å"Ultima’s

Thoreau, New Mexico Report Free Essays

Kaitlyn Willett Thoreau, New Mexico City Report Practically all residents pronounce the town’s name like â€Å"thuh-roo† (similar to â€Å"through† or â€Å"threw†) and definitely not like â€Å"thorough† or â€Å"throw. † Thoreau lies along Interstate 40 and the historic U. S. We will write a custom essay sample on Thoreau, New Mexico Report or any similar topic only for you Order Now Route 66. The climate in Thoreau is desert, with sparse vegetation typical of the region. Common plants include pinyon pine and juniper trees, sagebrush, tumbleweeds, and some short, sparse grasses. Summers are relatively mild, due to Thoreau’s high elevation and persistently low humidity. Cold, persistent, very high winds are common in spring, usually through much of the month of March. Thoreau supports three public schools in the Gallup-McKinley County Public School District. The public school mascot is the hawk, and the school colors are green and gold. In addition to the Navajo traditional beliefs (medicine men and Native American church) the Saint Bonaventure Catholic mission and several Protestant denominations are also active in Thoreau, including Baptists, Latter Day Saints (Mormons), Church of Christ, Church of God, and some independent congregations. The Native American culture and history is strong in Thoreau. The Navajo Nation operates a Chapter House here, and many Navajo residents speak their native language. Thoreau is a local trading center for artisans including rug weaving, sand painting, silver making, pottery making, and turquoise jewelry making. Anasazi archaeological sites connecting with Chaco Canyon can be found in and around the town. In Thoreau, there are only 73. 7% American Indians, 13. 3% Hispanic, and 12. 9% White. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,863 people, 532 households, and 405 families. Thoreau is your typical western setting. Hot days, cold nights, and lots of sand. Rattlesnakes and lizards are commonly found just about everywhere so you have to watch your every step. Though it gets pretty hot, the wind there will knock you down. History is all throughout Thoreau. It is home to the Navajo Indians and once to the Pueblos. The Pueblo Indian ruins are found in Chaco canyon and many are still standing. But how did the Navajo make their way to New Mexico? Starting in the spring of 1864, around 9,000 Navajo men, women and children were forced on The Long Walk of over 300 miles to Fort Sumner, New Mexico. It was a failure for a combination of reasons. It was designed to supply water, wood, supplies, and livestock for 4,000–5,000 people; it had one kind of crop failure after another; other tribes and civilians were able to raid the Navajo; and a small group of Apaches had been moved there. In 1868, a treaty was negotiated that allowed the surviving Navajos to return to a reservation that was a portion of their former nation. I bet almost everyone in here has never in their life heard of Thoreau, New Mexico. But though it is not commonly heard of, it is full of history and culture. To the Navajo Indians to the huge red mountains and cliffs, it is a town worth visiting. How to cite Thoreau, New Mexico Report, Essay examples

Reflection on Cultural Awareness for Intercultural Communications

Question: Discuss about theReflection on Cultural Awareness for Intercultural Communications. Answer: The saying that Fish without water often goes for individual who finds himself or herself in a situation where he should not be present or where he is very much uncomfortable to exist. A fish only lives in water and this is its obvious place to survive. When an individual remains in the place where he should be present in his comfort zone, it may be said that he is a fish who is living at his best place that is in water. However when he is not in the place where he is accustomed to, he may feel himself a fish who is taken out of the water that is out of his place where he is accustomed to. When I joined the Australian firm for internship, I had the same feeling where I felt that I had been taken out of my comfort zone from among the known faces and similar culture to that of unknown faces with different culture. From my learning on intercultural communications and theories, I had developed an idea about how cultural conflicts arise and how different person have biases towards another culture. A similar experience I also faced in the new firm. As I was from an Asian background, we follow totally different forms of greetings and biding goodbyes which were not at all liked by the Australian colleagues of the new firm. They made fun of the ways how I talked and conducted my activities. Some of them also showed biasness towards my culture which made me feel agitated. The Australian culture of workplace management was quite different as the environment was more informal which did not match with the work styles followed by Asian. Moreover I was also unable to understand their working cultural traditions and preferences as there was no one to guide me. However, my theories that I learnt in my university helped me a lot. I understood that I have to be open minded enough to respect other cultures and at the same time show my adaptability skills to match with the new environment. Two important components I have to incorporate is being aware of my own cultural traditions and preferences consciously and at the same time gather knowledge about the cultural preferences and inhibitions of the employees of the Australian firm. I have to be flexible enough to come out form my insecurity zones as feeling a fish out of the water would never help me to overcome the barrier of culture and emerge successful. Rather, I should try to use my communication skills effectively with the proper body language that Australians use and try to be one of them for effective team membership. This flexibility would make me feel respected where they would also try their best to develop ideas about my culture (Forehand Kotchick, 2017). I also had certain biasness towards their culture as I thought them to be casual with their behaviors with their employees which is not accepted in Asian firms. Rather, I tried to find its positive side and understood that it has a good benefit. This attitude helps in proper relationship building between individuals and helps in maintaining a transparency which increases effective communication and hence productivity. Asians are much formal with their approach and do not maintain such transparency which often results in development of negative feelings (Purnell, 2016). Hence, I decided to look towards the brighter idea to adapt to the new surrounding so that I do not feel fish out of the water anymore. A similar experience was faced by me and my friend who had come to the nation of Australian for completing out higher education in business management. He was of the Islamic background and belonged to the Kashmir region of India. He had his own set of traditions where he had to maintain certain outlook according to the need of his religious beliefs. On the first day of the university, he had faced certain biasness form some of the Australian students in the university. During a conversation with them, they made fun of his long beard and his sense of dressing irrespective of trying to understand his cultural traditions. Not only that, an Australian student also asked him from which country he came from. When he replied India, they made remark that Muslims usually come from Pakistan. This not only reflected their limited knowledge about other cultures, traditions, geography and demography but also showed their insensitive nature to make such remark (Ferraro Briody, 2017). This had aff ected my friends emotions and he felt broken down. Such situations are common occurrences in every nation in workplaces, study places sand others. In such scenario, it becomes extremely important for any individual coming to a new nation to develop a mind set of facing different biasness and preconceptions. Rather than feeling agitated or emotionally affected, he should take the opportunity to explain his cultural traditions and preferences with pride and polite way so that the opposite people can identify his own mistakes (Spencer, 2013). Developing the value that a person with other cultural traditions would be less knowledgeable about the individual is important as that will lead to less negative feelings and more strength of empowerment. The video showed a similar situation where the English men had preconceptions about the Korean women just from her appearance although she was born and brought up in San Diego and spoke perfect English. One should be positive about such situatio n and explain the opposite person about the cultural traditions and inhibitions to make him aware. This form of transparency should be adapted by every individual not only them who travel to new nations but also among individuals of the host country so that the reflection of human emotions and tenderness can be exhibited (Ang Van Dyne, 2015). Development of proper intercultural communication skills, self regulation, self awareness about cultural traditions, and adaptability to new culture, sensitivity while talking with people form opposite cultures and similar should be practiced by both the individuals coming from other backgrounds and that of the same host country. All these would ensure higher productivity at workplace, development of strong bonds among team members and a smooth workflow without any conflicts and negative feelings (Pedersen et al., 2015). I once had a chance of interacting with one of my friends father when I visited her place for studying together for our projects. As she was not in her place, I had to wait and during this time I had a chance of interacting with her father. After a short introduction, we soon entered into some serious discussion out of which the significant part of the transcripts is depicted: Sarahs father: When I travelled to your country, I had a weird experience. All the brown people there were staring at my wife as they have never seen women in their lives. Probably, they might have not seen white skin before. Me: It is really a bad experience of you, I must say. Sarahs father: Yes, I came to know form a friend of mine there that men there are not comfortable there to see their wives working. That is really not a good one as men there dominate women. Me: however, our cultural traditions had long supported such system. However, women are now trying to break the barriers and emerging out with good education, career and independent lives Sarahs father: It sounds good but I doubt as gender biasness have been huge issues in your country. Me: with the passage of time, our country is progressing Sarahs father: one interesting thing that was quite funny was how you people touch others foot when you meet. That is really unhygienic. Me: we mainly do it as a matter of showing respect to the elders Sarahs father: That is quite funny and how you say Namaste with flowers and incense sticks who on earth would do that? Me: each and every country has traditions that are set by ancestors and we respect our culture the way it is. From the entire discussion, I felt quite agitated as Sarah father named Mr. Greens conversations reflected he cultural preconceptions that he harbored within himself. He had developed some notions form certain experiences which he had applied to the entire nation of my country. He was insensitive in his approach and his statements made me develop the feeling of otherness as his comments made distinctions between our culture and Australian culture. Gender biasness was stated by him as a factor which is no more a concern in our country as women are now taking on education and career with the same length as their male counterparts. His idea thereby reflected a preconceived notion of our culture which no longer hold true. However, a mockery was noted in his acceptance of the fact. Moreover he also made fun of the cultural traditions of greetings elders in our country. He is actually not sensitive but impolite in his comments as he should have the idea about how to put sensitive things in a polished way. Moreover racism was noted in his speech when he used words like brown people. Therefore a strong sense of otherness was felt. However, the remarks which are made should never be put in such unskilled way (Tomalin Stempleski, 2013). If an individual is really curious about other cultures, he should develop the skill to put it in a sensitive way at the same time of respecting the culture of the positive aspects and wanting to know the main rationale behind the tradition rather than making fun of them (Katan, 2014). References: Ang, S., Van Dyne, L. (2015).Handbook of cultural intelligence. Routledge. Ferraro, G. P., Briody, E. K. (2017).The cultural dimension of global business. Taylor Francis. Forehand, R., Kotchick, B. A. (2016). Cultural Diversity: A Wake-Up Call for Parent TrainingRepublished Article.Behavior therapy,47(6), 981-992. Katan, D. (2014).Translating cultures: An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. Routledge. Pedersen, P. B., Lonner, W. J., Draguns, J. G., Trimble, J. E., Scharron-del Rio, M. R. (Eds.). (2015).Counseling across cultures. Sage. Purnell, L. (2016). Are we really measuring cultural competence?.Nursing science quarterly,29(2), 124-127. Spencer, M. B. (2013). Cultural cognition and social cognition as identity correlates of Black children's personal-social development.MJ Peebles-Kleiger, Beginnings: The Art and Science of Planning Psychotherapy, 215-260. Tomalin, B., Stempleski, S. (2013).Cultural Awareness-Resource Books for Teachers. Oxford University Press.

Descartes Meditation One Essays - Epistemology, Ren Descartes

Descartes Meditation One I am going to discuss Descartes Meditation One: Concerning those things that can be called into doubt. I will analyze and explain what Descartes was trying to do, and explain why (In my personal opinion) that this is nothing but a few wordy paragraphs that have no real value or point to them. In Descartes first meditation he discusses that he has come to the conclusion that many of his beliefs and opinions he had as a child are doubtful. Descartes decides that in order to find out the "truths" he must disprove his current "knowledge." Descartes goes about this by trying to disprove the principles that support everything he believes in, using his Method of Doubt. Descartes Method of doubt is his way of doubting everything that has even the slightest possibility of not being fact. Descartes does not necessarily doubt everything that he brings up. Descartes does believe that whatever can not be doubted for the slightest reason must be true. For that reason is why I think that his argument is weak, and I will explain later why I think that this is the case. Descartes spends meditation one trying to disprove his fundamental beliefs. First Descartes doubts that he can trust his senses because they are occasionally wrong. An example of this are a longed haired man may look like a woman from far away. Descartes then states that there are no definitive signs for him to tell weather he is awake or asleep. Since he cannot trust his senses he concludes that there is no way to determine whether he is awake or asleep. But he admits that there are certain "truths" that are consistent weather he is awake or asleep. For instance two plus three equals five, and that a square has four sides in his sleep, and while conscious. To disprove these beliefs Descartes abandons the idea of a supremely good God like he has believed in all his life and brings up the argument that God is an all powerful, all clever evil genius who's entire purpose is to deceive Descartes. With these three arguments, each larger than the next, Descartes is satisfied that he has adequately disproved the previous argument. Since he has done this he is now ready to lay down a new foundation of knowledge and find the "truth." This passage reminds me of the movie "The Matrix", in that God acts as the computers did in the Matrix. Descartes is trying to free his mind as Neo had to do because the computers only let Neo see what they wanted him to by altering his senses, just like Descartes believes God is doing to him. The reason why I don't particularly like this essay by Descartes is because I feel that his argument is weak and ridiculous at the same time. Descartes claims, or at least says for purpose of argument that in order to find the real truth he must not trust anything that he was taught or knows because his senses deceive him. Fine lets assume that our senses do deceive us, and that there really is a big, all powerful, evil genius of a God. It would be impossible to ever find out the truth and thats what bothers me about this argument. Our senses deceive us. Everything we see, taste, smell, hear and feel are all false. If this were the case it would be impossible to ever find out the"truth" because every piece of information and every belief, thought, and emotion comes from one of our senses. And if on top of that, if God was all powerful and deceiving there would be absolutely nothing we could to obtain the truth. Something that is all powerful, has control over every thought, belief and idea that we have. And if Descartes believes this then he must believe that this deceiving God is putting the idea in his brain that if he ignores his senses he will obtain truth. If his God is deceiving and all powerful then he will never discover truth. Descartes tries an alternative way to look at reality, the initial idea and the concept as a whole (looking at reality from a different perspective) is a very interesting one. But the way he goes about explaining it was not particularly impressive. There are just too many holes in his explanation and he constantly contradicts himself and his points seem to work against themselves, as opposed to supporting his hypothesis. I also am

Economics1 essays

Economics1 essays The aim of this essay is not to agree with or refute the statement made by Douglass North. The purpose of this essay is to identify the key points of the statement and discuss with relation to the institutional evolution in the Australian financial and labour Markets. With this, it will attempt to conclude whether the statement has a relevance to the evolution of the financial and labour markets. The passage, taken from Norths paper Institutions has a relevance to Australias Financial and Labour Markets. Its relevance can be shown by analysing the key points of the statement. These being, institutions are humanly devised, institutions provide constraints to the market, institutions provide economic incentives and institutional change leads an economy towards its success or failure. Norths statement regards Institutions as being humanly devised . Institutions are devised for the purpose of protecting the various groups effected by the market. This is done by imposing corrections on a market ( subject to failure). A market failure occurs when the market is unable to determine the use and allocation of resources in a way society most desires. ( Kirkwood, Cronk, Swiericzuk intervention in a market occurs due to imperfections in the market and is an attempt at ammending such imperfections. The key institution within the financial system is the Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA). In January 1960, legislation was passed to create the RBA, hiving off the central banking functions of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia (CBA). The induction of the RBA in1960 was due to growing concern from the private banking sector of a commercial bank maintaining the functions of a central bank (Lewis ensure that monetary and banking policy of the bank is directed to the greatest advantage of the ...

Career Aspirations and Reflection on Skills Development Essay

Career Aspirations and Reflection on Skills Development - Essay Example This paper examines the author’s long term career plan as to be able to open and establish his own string of SPA and Wellness Centers in London. The researcher envisions himself as a successful entrepreneur, managing and operating not only one, but several shops, even to the point of offering low cost franchise for those who have aspirations to attain financial freedom and stability through opening their own business. To accomplish this dream, the researcher sees himself building the necessary resources to open his own business in the city. Apart from the financial requirements, he also has to be equipped to establish and oversee his own SPA and Wellness Centre. So the author could be trained thoroughly in business management, his medium term goal is to be able obtain a management position as an Operations Manager in one of the top SPA and Wellness Centers in London. The researcher’s first step towards achieving these goals is first, to obtain his bachelor’s and master’s degree in Business Management. The researcher considers this his short term career goal, as this will serve as his stepping stone towards his dreams. The author is now juggling both his studies and a job within the same industry, which to him, are perfect training grounds both in his chosen field of studies and his personal development as well. A SPA and Wellness Business Manager should have excellent leadership skills, superior people skills and extensive knowledge on the SPA business. Successful careers are deemed not to be based on academic qualifications alone, but more importantly, on the person’s ability to demonstrate strong leadership skills in the workplace (MIB – Master of International Business in Hotel, Resort and Spa Management 2011). In this sense, I must be able to develop strength in character, and solid decision making skills to I could eventually lead my own team towards a prosperous business venture. Leadership skills are essentially the ability to motivate a group of people towards particular goals (Leadership 2011). I would only be able to do this if people have reasons to look up to me. The SPA and Wellness business is lucrative business, which has gained immense popularity on the global front simply because of the growing interest in holistic wellness. More than going to the doctor for treatment of particular diseases, people have embraced the concept of prevention. Release from tension and stress allows us to become healthy individuals (Spas and the Global Wellness Market: Synergies and Opportunities 2011). Just like any other industry, the trends are evolving. Technology plays a big part in the development of this segment. And so to be able to be an effective SPA and Wellness Manager, I must be constantly in touch with the developments on a global level. I must know, understand and more importantly, enjoy the specifics of this business to succeed. People skills are one of the most important qualities that a SPA and Wellness Business Manage should have. The Wellness industry is a service-oriented vocation. The products are all about pleasing people and giving them good levels of health and wellness services. There should be a strong connection between the service providers and the customers. The people behind this service should be able to understand the demands of the market and be able to come up with ways to deliver

Interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 15

Interview - Essay Example The interview perused on issues relating to team management for instance, how I ever managed a team project in the past, difficulties I encountered, decisions I undertook, how I managed the group members, how I met deadlines, and organized the team to work as one. In preparation of the team building questions will give me confidence when going for the interview. I also believe that there are a number of questions which I did not find relevant in the mock exam, for instance, the question asking about situations when I missed deadlines while carrying projects and what I could have done different. I believe such a question is irrelevant in this content. I felt more prepared when questions relating to goals was asked. Ever since I was a young person, I had always been taught about the value of always planning ahead, through having short and long term goals. In addition, I was more prepared when it came to team project management issues since I had experience with it. In school, we used to be grouped in groups of 8 and each group accorded group leader in rotation for each task. As a group leader and project manager, I managed to get some skills in relation to how to make a team stronger and more focused. I felt least prepared in the question which talked about describing some aspects about the company, since i had not research about it well. I also found the question about the most difficult course that I took in school absurd, because I found all to be equally easy. I learnt a lot about myself after the mock interview. I realized that I had a lot to learn and prepare for the real exam. First of all, I realized I would get an average or a fail based on the level of prepared at the mock interview. In order to score highly for the real interview with the company, means I have to prepare well. I also realized the value of being prepared all round as some questions are not directly related to class work, but come as practical examples, like for

Education Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Education - Assignment Example Additionally, Rose indicates that her mother is intelligent an aspect that is indicated by how she sequences and groups her task. Additionally, the mother was in a position to handle problems that occur among the workers or during the working process (Mackintosh 25). Another issue that depicts the level of intelligence possessed by mother is that she was able to analyze the mood of the workers, customers as well as those of the managers. In this way, she was able to create positive working relationship with all stakeholders. Joe Meraglio is also intelligent. Despite having left the school in the ninth grade, Mike Rose indicates that Joe is able to handle new problems regardless of their nature. In addition, Joe is able to come up with new products that make the working process in the plant to be smooth. For example, through redesigning of the nozzle, Joe was able to eliminate the high costs be incurred by the plant while at the same time ending the unhealthy spray. Another theme that is covered by Mike Rose is education. As indicated by the author, college education changed his life. Through his 40 years in the teaching career, Mike indicates that his experience is not all that unusual. Despite that Mike’s mother was not extensively educated, Mike indicates that he was able to get adequate education even though his academic record was dreary at the initial stages. As indicated by the book, formal education results to intelligence that makes individuals to handle various problems. One of the key benefits of education is that it results to economic development. For example, individuals who are educated are in a position to know how the machines they are working with operates. As noted by the Mike Rose. Joe is a good instructor but he is not aware of how the machines in his plant operate even though he is able to effectively work with them (Blue Collar Brilliance 3). The author indicates that for those people who are

Generics Medicines Regulation Comparison

Generics Medicines Regulation Comparison Chapter 1 Executive Summary This research will look at the adoption of generic medicines in specific three countries in Europe (The Netherlands, Poland and Portugal). These three countries have a significant difference in adoption; the reasons for this adoption difference can be explained by several regulations which are implemented by these countries. In previous research it is proven that regulations have a direct effect on the adoption however, this research will have a closer look which regulations in specific are important to stimulate generic medicines in the market. Results show that too much regulation around the entry of generic medicines in the market will lead to slow growth adoption in the market compared to countries which adopt less regulation. Recommendations to stimulate the generic medicines in the market will be presented in the last chapter. The problem background A lot of research has been done on the introduction of generic medicines. Examples include the obstacles to generic substitution in Sweden (Anderesson et al. 2005) and the use of generic medicines and the implications for the pharmaceutical market (King Kanavos, 2002). However, there is limited cross-country research examining the relationship between the implementation of regulation, the effects of incentives given to pharmacies and physicians and consecutive adoption of generic medicines. The available research is limited to one of these elements, there has not been made a direct consideration between these elements which influence the adoption of generic medicines. In 1995 the European Medicine Evaluation Agency (EMEA) offers a EU- wide authorization process which replaced the ongoing single authorization process of each country separately, this means that regulation is harmonized regarding the entry of generic medicines The EMEA will approve the generic entry of a medicine before it can be presented on the European pharmaceutical market. This centralized procedure has decreased the approval delays for generic medicines in the EU resulting in the fact that patent regulation and approval procedures for medicines no longer have a large effect on the development of generics (Danzon, et al. 2003). National regulation still has an impact concerning price and reimbursement approval which has to be authorized by national authorities. Moreover, it is examined that generics have had more success in countries with more flexible pricing policies (Garattini Tediosi, 2000) and previous research has shown that the prescription of generic medicines is dependent on the incentives given to pharmacist, and other parties (Hellerstein, 1998). However, with recent reforms in the national regulation systems across European countries, flexible generic pricing policies and incentives given by the national governments are no longer the main determinants of successful entry of generics on the market. Obligatory generic substitution systems and other regulations implemented by European governments have become at dominant factor in explaining the adoption of generic medicines as a consequence that incentives for physicians, pharmacists and patient have decreased due to the obligatory system (Timonen, et al. 2009). This thesis gives an overview of the relation between the adoption of generic medicines and the regulation in three European countries: The Netherlands, Portugal and Poland. These countries are chosen because they have different implementations in regulation concerning generics and the adoption rate in these countries differs significantly. Recommendations for European countries and a conclusion about the most effective method to increase the use of generic medicines in relation with regulation will be exposed. The problem statement The differences among three countries; (The Netherlands, Portugal and Poland), concerning the adoption of generic medicines in relation with regulation and influencing incentives in these European countries. The motive to present these specific three countries is resulting from the fact that the adoption level of generic medicines differs significantly. Therefore a clear image can be provided between the differences of adoption connected with the accompanying regulation adopted in that country concerning generic medicines Dependent variable: adoption of generic medicines Independent variable 1: regulation of generics medicines Research Questions Research question 1: What are the differences in regulation about the use of generic medicines among the Netherlands, Portugal Poland? Research question 2: What is the role of these regulations on the adoption of generics? Relevance The thesis should give European countries and in particular public policy makers, a clear image on the effects incentives can have concerning the adoption of generic when prescribing these medicines, and which type of regulation is the most effective for the increase in adoption of generics. Managerial perspective The prescription of generic medicines is intensively regulated. This results in many implications for pharmaceutical companies especially, concerning the implementation of generic medicines in the market. Considering, the fact that the regulation of the prescription of generic medicines has a direct effect on the use of generic medicines. Therefore the adoption level for generic medicines is likely to change when the regulation changes. Pricing strategies for pharmaceutical companies have a diminishing effect due to the strict pricing regulation implemented by public policy makers. Branding strategies are also complicated to implement in the pharmaceutical industry because of the many regulations adopted. However, branding strategies are very important; they can strengthen the bond between the buyer and the seller (Blackett Robins, 2001). Pharmaceutical companies have to make important decisions regarding the implementation of the generic medicines in the market. They should be aware of all regulation to be able to compete in the pharmaceutical industry. Academic perspective Country-specific results have been presented in several papers how regulation influences the use and adoption of generic medicines. However, a cross-country research on the effects of regulations implemented, in relation to the adoption of generic medicines. More specifically, the effects of incentives, given by policy makers, to pharmaceutical companies and the accompanying marketing strategies implemented by pharmaceutical companies, have not been examined earlier. Overview of the Rest of the Chapters Chapter 2: This chapter gives an overview on the question: What are the differences in adoption of generic medicines between the Netherlands, Portugal and Poland? These three countries will be investigated carefully; previous literature studies will give a clear image about the actual adoption of generic medicines in these countries. Background information will be presented to understand the structure of the chosen countries and the differences in adoption. Chapter 3: Data will be gathered to come to an answer to the research question 1: What are the differences in regulation about the use of generic medicines among the Netherlands, Portugal Poland? Chapter 4: Chapter four will explain the role of regulation on the adoption rate of generic medicines (research question 2). Chapter5: Public policy makers are in general in favour of increasing the use of generic medicines, because of the market advantages. Chapter 5 will give an overview of the most effective policy which is used among the three countries presented earlier in the thesis. Further recommendation to the public policy makers and limitations of the research will be dealt with in this chapter. A conclusion of this research will be presented. Chapter 2: differences in adoption of generic medicines This chapter will give an answer to the differences concerning the adoption of generic medicines between the Netherlands, PortugalandPoland. The level of generic medicine adoption differs significantly across Europe. This chapter will have a look at these differences and the resulting factors that have lead to these differences in adoption. Other implications such as different policy regulations and incentives given to pharmacist by the policy makers will be dealt with in chapter 3. They will be dealt whit in a separate chapter because they are dominant factors in the adoption of generic medicines. A distinction can be made between mature generic markets and developing generic markets (Simoens, 2009). The level of adoption of generic medicines in these countries differs from less than 10 per cent to more than 40 per cent. The share value in the market for generic medicines is 8.8 per cent for the Portugal, 19.8 per cent in the Netherlands and Poland ranks the top with 65.2 per cent (â€Å"A Review on the European†, n.d.). Comparing these figures with other European countries, Portugal falls in the lower range of adoption and Poland is situated in the upper range of the adoption level of generic medicines in their market. According to Simoens and Coster, (2006), Poland and the Netherlands are seen as mature generic markets in Europe, while Portugal is seen as a developing market. There are several factors (historical background and cultural elements), which have influenced the adoption rate of generic medicines in these countries. Clarifications of these elements are stated below. Historical background An explanation for the differences in adoption of generic medicines can partially be explained by the historical differences between the Netherlands, Portugal and Poland. In Western Europe, pricing and reimbursement policies naturally developed as an evolutionary economic process. However, this was not the case for Central and Eastern Europe states (CEE) which are now members of the EU. These CEE countries used to have a socialistic type of economy, and after the fall of the Berlin wall (1989) many of those countries faced political and economic bankruptcy. Large-scale reform was necessary in every single sector to guarantee their economical and political well being. The health care system was also a part of this sector and even today, ongoing reforms are taking place. There is still a lot that has to be done in the CEE countries, specifically within the health care system. Hospital decentralization, modernization and privatization and pricing and reimbursement policies are some examples of areas where further development is preferred (Kazakov, 2007). These necessary reforms and changes are also applicable to Poland. The Netherlands and Portugal do not suffer from these reforms, due to fact of not having a communistic history. Another implication of this socialist history is the fact that Poland was already used to adopt generic medicines, as brand medicines were not available in these countries due the absence of product patents until early 1990s (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Cultural elements Cultural sensitivity is one of the most widely accepted principles among public health (Resnicow, et all. 2000). According to Resnicow (2000), cultural sensitivity indicates â€Å"The extent to which ethnic/cultural characteristics, experiences, norms, values, behavioral patterns, and beliefs of a target population as well as relevant historical, environmental, and social forces are incorporated in the design, delivery, and evaluation of targeted health promotion materials and programs† (page 272). The relation between the pharmacist and the pharmaceutical representative can have a huge impact on the prescription of medicines and therefore on the adoption of generic medicines. Historical developments in Poland have created a positive attitude towards prescribing generic medicines, as prescribing generic medicines has been a common practice in Poland until the early 1990s. In the Netherlands, on the other hand, generic substitution is more driven by the pharmacist (Simoens de Coster, 2006). On average a pharmaceutical company will spend twice as much on marketing to the pharmacist and the public than on research and development (Zipkin, et all. 2005). A more detailed view about the adoption rate of generic medicines concerned the three countries (the Netherlands, Poland and Portugal) are presented below: The Netherlands The Dutch generic market has grown rapidly over time; public expenditure has increased from 185 million euro in 1994, resulting in a market share value of 8.5 per cent. In 2004 the market share has increased to 17.7 per cent; this means that the value has almost doubled. The market share increased also dramatically from 19.9 per cent in 1994 to 44.3 percent in 2004 (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Results from an EGA survey conducted in 2007; show that the market share of generic medicines has increased to more than 50 per cent (see figure 2 and 3 in appendix B). Poland Due to historical implications mentioned before, Poland has a very mature generic market. In 2006 the market shares of Poland were 60 per cent by value and close to 80 per cent by volume (see figure 2 and 3 in appendix B). Portugal In the 1990s the generic medicines adoption in Portugal did not exceed more than 1 per cent. An introduction in the generic policy in the year 2000 caused for an increase in market share of 8 per cent measured until 2004. An explanation of the generic policy will be provided in chapter 3 (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Recent results from an EGA survey implemented in 2007 show that the market share has slightly increased to almost 10 per cent (see figure 2 and 3 in appendix B). Chapter 3: differences in regulation about the use of generic medicines What are the differences in regulation about the use of generic medicines among the Netherlands, Portugal Poland? There are several domains in regulation which will eventually influence the structure of the market and determine how the pharmaceutical companies can operate most effectively in this pharmaceutical market. This thesis presents the most important domains where regulations are implemented; market authorisation, pricing, incentives, and marketing implications. Market authorisation In Europe, the process regarding market authorisation is very complex. Market access for generic medicines may differ from country to country; this holds there is little transparency regarding the entry of generic medicines in Europe. A pharmaceutical company may receive market authorisation to enter the market in a specific country. However, other regulations regarding the reimbursement and price of the generic product still need to be determined by the government. This means the process, concerning the entry of the generic medicine, can be delayed up to three times (â€Å"A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005†, n.d.). The EU directive was introduced to create a better system regarding the entry of generic medicines in Europe. There is a transparency directive, 89/105/EEC, which specifies that there is a 90 day limit regarding the reimbursement and pricing decision. However, the time delays vary from country to country (Garattini Tediosi, 2000). The table below (â€Å"A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005†, n.d.) gives an overview of the times delays per country for price approval to enter the market. With respect to the countries in this thesis, the table above (â€Å"A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005†, n.d.). shows the following: Poland does not have a time delay because the pricing and reimbursement approvals are granted together with the market authorisation of the generic medicines. In the Netherlands, we can see a delay of between 10 and 15 days which could be defined as a relatively efficient time to approval compared to other countries in Europe. Portugal is very inefficient with the entry of the generic medicines, the status of pricing and reimbursement will only be given after a 90-day delay (â€Å"A Review on the European†, n.d.). Pricing Price regulations are only applicable when the generic medicines will be reimbursed. The most effective regulation is a price restriction on the maximum reimbursement of that specific medicine or a maximum price that pharmaceutical companies may charge the medicine users (Danzon Keuffel, 2007). Most European countries, including the countries in this study, have introduced a reference price system. A reference price system entails that there are regulations which will restrict the reimbursement level of generic medicines, but that the price of the generic medicines itself will be uncontrolled. Under the reference price system, groups are clustered into certain reimbursement level, based either on the same compound or different compounds but with the same mode of action or with a similar name. All products that are placed in the same group are reimbursed at the same price per daily dose, which is also called the reference price. In general, the reference price in a group will be set at the level of the cheapest medicine or the median in that group. If pharmaceutical manufacturers price their product above the reference price, the user of the generic medicines needs to pay the outstanding amount above the reference price. There are two different pricing systems in Europe: a generic free pricing system and a generic price-regulated system. Both systems determine the degree of adoption of generic medicines. In a generic free pricing system companies can decide on the height of the price of a new generic medicine introduced in the market themselves, in contrary to a price regulated system (Simoens, 2010). The reference pricing system has three levels of implementation, the higher the level of the system is, the more the prices are regulated. Poland has a low reference pricing system, the Netherlands could be defined as a medium reference pricing system and Portugal uses a high reference pricing system. As presented in the table below (Bongers Carradinha, 2009), one can see which European countries fall in a regulated price system and have no free pricing system. Consumer implications The patients themselves (the demand side) play an important role in the prescription of generic medicines. Physicians and pharmacists and other contributing parties will prescribe generic medicines to reduce the costs for the payer, which is in this case the consumer of the medicine. Patient co-payment Pricing and reimbursement systems play a role for the patient. The patient will contribute to the financing of the health care system, in particular with the co-payment arrangement. This is a common practice in all European countries (with the exception of Malta), but the implementation of co-payment differs significantly across countries. Nevertheless, in all countries that employ a co-payment arrangement a financial contribution is made by the medicine user. Patient co-payment arrangements can strongly influence the end decision of the patient on which medicines to take (â€Å"A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005†, n.d.). The reimbursement of generic medicines is taken care of through an insurance model; however the co-payment arrangement is based on a percentage of the cost of the medicine (Kazakov, 2007). Pricing regulation related to the countries in the thesis; The Netherlands uses an enforcing pricing regulation, which sets a maximum for the pricing of medicines. In 1996, this system was implemented. In general, it led to a decrease of 15 per cent of the average medicine price in the market (Simoens de Coster, 2006). However, the prices of generic medicines in the Netherlands still tended to be higher compared to other EU countries. Mediation in short-term pricing strategies such as implementing similar pricing systems, have increased and stimulated the share in the markets for generic medicines, where competition already existed (Bongers Carradinha, 2009). Polish medicine prices tend to be lower compared to other EU countries. They work with a price regulated system for generic medicines. The pharmaceutical companies want to be absorbed in the reimbursement list for medicines. The reference price in Poland is set just below or just above the cheapest generic medicines in the Polish market (Simoens, 2009). Pharmaceutical companies may price their product above the reference price, taking into account that as a result they will not be placed on the reimbursement list (Kazakov, 2007). Portugal established a regulation which says that the minimum price difference of generic medicines and brand medicines should be a least 35 per cent in 2001. In 2005 Portugal agreed to reduce the overall medicine prices by 6 per cent. Of that 6 per cent 4.17 per cent had to be reduced by the pharmaceutical company and the other 1.93 per cent had to be reduced by the wholesalers and pharmacists. The reference price system was introduced in 2003 where the reference price was set at the level of the most expensive generic medicine (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Despite the fact Portugal has a developed market, the market share concerning generic medicines is still relatively low compared to other countries in Europe. Regardless, of the fact that companies producing generic medicines provide affordable treatments to patients, other savings can only be achieved if government supply side policy initiatives are designed to increase the competitiveness of generic medicines in the market (Bongers Carradinha, 2009). Incentives To establish a generic medicine market, the supply side (pricing system) needs to be supplemented by demand side policies which create incentives for physicians, pharmacists, and patients to use generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). The Netherlands Instruments to promote generic medicines have been in place for a long time and have been widely accepted in the Netherlands (Vogler Schmickl, 2010). Incentives for physicians The Dutch government has stimulated physicians to prescribe generic medicines, which is supported by an electronic prescription system. In the Netherlands it is customary to develop and implement guidelines and treatment protocols on how to prescribe generic medicines in order to efficiently increase the adoption of generic medicines. An important feature is that there are no sanctions for physicians who do not prescribe generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Incentives for pharmacists Generic substitution is allowed for the pharmacist when the physician and the patient agree with it, however, it could be indicated by the physician that generic substitution is not permitted due to health reasons. This means that when a branded drugs patent has expired pharmacists are allowed to distribute a generic substitution unless indicated otherwise by the physician. Health insurers have also agreed upon several targets for the pharmacist in distributing generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Generic substitution has been connected to financial incentives for the pharmacist for a long time, however these incentives have been abolished since 2004. Nevertheless, the adoption in the market of generic substitution has not decreased (Vogler Schmickl, 2010). Incentives for the patients In the Netherlands the patients do not have a financial incentive to buy generic medicines because there are no patient co-payments arrangements. Nevertheless, patients do have to pay the outstanding amount when the price of the medicines is above the reference price, which is set by the government (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Poland Incentives for physicians Physicians are not intensively encouraged to prescribe generic medicines. Due to the historical background physicians are already accustomed with the use and prescription of generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Incentives for pharmacist Generic substitution is allowed by pharmacists; whenever a branded drug is prescribed a pharmacist may replace this by a generic substitution. Pharmacists are obliged to inform the patients about the generic substitution. Price reductions implemented by pharmaceutical companies encourage pharmacists to prescribe generic medicines (Simoens, 2009). Incentives for the patient There are four levels of reimbursement for the patient. The first level includes a fixed amount per prescription which will be reimbursed when these are essential medicines. The second and third level consist of supplementary medicines which will be charged to the patient through the co-patient system. The patients have to pay 30 to 50 per cent themselves. The fourth level holds that other prescribed medicines which are not on the reimbursement list will be fully paid by the medicine user (the patient). However, initiatives to inform the patients about generic medicines have not been presented (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Portugal Incentives for physicians In 2002, a regulation was implemented in Portugal which formulated that from that moment on physicians would be obliged to prescribe a generic medicine if possible. However, physicians and pharmacists are free to add brand medicines to prescriptions that include more than one medicine, of which at least one is generic. The physicians are to inform the patient about other generic medicines and the accompanying price differences. Even though guidelines are available, the system has not been fully implemented. An explanation for this is that the physicians and the pharmacists are neither being rewarded for prescribing, nor being punished when not prescribing generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Incentives for pharmacists Physicians can indicate whether they permit generic substitution on the prescription form. In the cases that generic substitution is allowed by the physician, the pharmacists have to prescribe the cheapest generic medicines available. Pharmacists do not have any financial incentive to prescribe generic medicines as the generic margins for pharmacists have been dramatically low since the introduction of the regulation in 2005 (the overall reduction of generic medicines prices) (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Incentives for patients Portugal has 5 different levels of reimbursement. In the first level 100 per cent of the medicine will be reimbursed when they are classified as life saving. The second level holds that 95 per cent of the medicines will be reimbursed, the third level holds 70 per cent, the fourth level 40 per cent, and the fifth level holds a percentage of 20 per cent. Patients with a low income will receive a 15 per cent additional compensation on the stated reimbursement level. Until 2005, patients were rewarded with a 10 per cent additional reimbursement when they asked for a generic substitution. However, with the abolishment of the reward system of 10 per cent, the patient will now only receive a price reduction of 6 per cent for the use of generic medicines. The patient does not have an incentive but rather a discouraging effect to use generic medicines. Nevertheless, pro-generic campaigns have been introduced by the government since 2006; the effects of these campaigns are not yet clear (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Previous research shows that the patient co-payment arrangement in Poland and Portugal plays a visible role in stimulating the use and adoption for generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). For an overall overview of the regulation implemented across these three countries a table is presented below. Marketing implications A generic medicine should appear under the international non-proprietary name (INN). This entails, that a generic medicine should be marketed without a commercial brand name but in fact, three categories there can be distinguished; branded generics (copies of generic medicines with their own brand name), semi-branded generics (products marketed under the INN following the name of the manufacturer of the medicines) and medicines marketed under INN (Garattini Tediosi, 2000). The EU directive 65/65/EEC was established, to approve marketing of a drug. An allowance for introducing a generic medicine and detailing these medicines should be supported by several data available of the generic medicines (for example clinical data.) There are a lot of restrictions concerning advertisements and promotion activities of pharmaceutical products. These are presented by the The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union (2004) .Together with price regulation, advertising plays an important role in the pharmaceutical market. In general patients are uninformed about the most effective and available treatments, they depend on the diagnosis and treatment suggestion from the physician. Since the physician will prescribe the medicine it can be stated that they will directly affect the extent of competition between different treatments and medicines available. Therefore it not remarkable that the physician is the target of huge advertisement campaigns and that detailing in the pharmaceutical industry is mainly focused on physicians (Kà ¶nigbauer, 2006). The volume of detailing in the pharmaceutical market depends on several factors such as: the prevalence of the disease, the amount of competition for the medicine, the number of physicians who might prescribe the generic medicines, and like any other product in a market, taking into account the product life cycle of the product (Berndt, et al 2007). Chapter 4 What is the role of these regulations on the adoption of generics? Market authorisation Approval of generic medicines The success of a gene

Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia in Beetal Goats Essay -- Health, Ou

Abstract Seroprevalence, clinical findings and lesions of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) in Beetal goats were recorded during an outbreak. The overall seroprevalence of CCPP was 32.50%. Confirmation of Mycoplasma mycoides in serum was carried out using counter immunoelectrophoresis (CIE) technique. The highest CIE positive cases were recorded in the older goats (51.72%) as compared to young ones. Nasal swabs were collected from 39 goats showing respiratory signs were found positive for Mycoplasma. The most and consistent clinical findings were mild to severe cough, purulent nasal secretion, emaciation, dysponea, increased respiration rate and pyrexia. Mortality due to CCPP was 9.17%. Consolidation of lungs exhibited the highest frequency (100%) followed by alveolar exudation (90.90%) and pleural adhesion (72.72%). Among the microscopic lesions, septal peribronchiolar fibrosis exhibited the highest frequency (81.81%) followed by fibrious pleuritis (63.63%) and peribronchio lar cuffing of mononuclear cells (54.54%) in lungs. From these results, it can be concluded that contagious caprine pleuropneumonia under subtropical conditions has great prevalence in Beetal goats and leads to significant mortality. Keywords: Beetal goat . Pakistan. CCPP . Seroprevalence . Pathology Introduction At present, there are 58.3 million goats in Pakistan and their population is increasing at the rate of more than 3% per annum (Afzal, 2010). Pakistan is the third largest goat producing country in the world after China and India. The goat farming in Pakistan is threatened by the prevalence of many infectious and non infectious diseases. Among the infectious disease, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia is a major threat to goat population... ...us pleuropneumonia in the acute stage were also observed in sheep (Momani et al. 2006). Similar lesion were also reported in animal suffering with CCPP from a longer duration exhibited chronic pleuropneumonia or chronic pleuritis (Gelagay et al. 2007). Histopathologically lungs tissue showed mucopurulent to fibrinopurulent exudates accumulation in the aveoli, septal peribronchiolar fibrosis, dilated hyperplastic bronchi, alveolar exudates was dominated by macrophages and with a variable component of neutrophils, and pulmonary fibrosis peribronchiolar mononuclear cuffing were also observed in present study. Similar histopathological changes with lesser intensity were also reported in sheep and goats (Goncalves et al. 2010). Clinico-pathological findings and seroprevalence of disease provided evidence and the presence of CCPP in beetle goats in district Faisalabad.

Betrayal: Best Friend

Being betrayed by your best friend is one of the most difficult things you might have to deal with. I suppose that I wouldn't really know anything about that due to never considering myself as my best friend. I guess the worst betrayal one can go through is betraying yourself. I have gone through that many times, it's awful and it hurts when it does happen. You never think that you can actually hurt yourself so terribly that it would affect your life until it happens. I've learned over the past years that you cannot sit there and think that you have a best friend unless you realize that you are your own best friend. You have to learn to love and trust yourself before you can love and put trust in a â€Å"best friend†. So I've recognized that the people I thought were my best friends throughout these years were actually just people I was associated with, acquaintances. This also shows how you can not rely on people. You always find something new about that person and some may never show their true colors. Some people may think that you can't be best friends with yourself but if you love and trust yourself you can. This is actually a good thing, it teaches you to love and care for yourself; depend on yourself and to make sure that you don't have to depend on others for advice when really you can solve the problem yourself. When I did I realized how dreadful awful I betrayed myself and also the people around me I saw how much it hurt. I told myself that I would never do it again and that I needed to learn to love myself so I could grow up and acquire a best friend the right way. One may trying to do best by not treating themselves that way anymore and to straighten up completely make sure you don't betray myself anymore. I feel that it's a lot more harmful a person to betray themselves than it is to betray another person. I have also learned that not everyone feels the same way as you, there for do not know how bad they hurt you. Most teenagers seem to think lacking empathy makes them â€Å"cool. â€Å"

Show, Dont Tell The Simple Guide for Writers

Show, Dont Tell The Simple Guide for Writers Show, Dont Tell: What You Need to Know You’ve heard it a thousand times from writing mentors, and you’ll hear it a thousand times more: Show, don’t tell. But what does it mean? If you struggle with the difference between showing vs. telling, you’re not alone. Once you’ve got it, it seems simple. But until you do, this maxim causes as many questions as anything in the writing world.    Is it really that important? You bet it is. If you want your writing noticed by a publisher or an agent- and for the right reasons- it’s vital you master the art of showing. So let’s see if I can solidify the concept in your mind right here, right now. I want to supercharge your showing vs. telling radar- and make it simple. Need help fine-tuning your writing?  Click here to download my free self-editing checklist. The Difference Between Showing vs. Telling When you tell rather than show, you simply inform your reader of information rather than allowing him to deduce anything. You’re supplying information by simply stating it. You might report that a character is â€Å"tall,† or â€Å"angry,† or â€Å"cold,† or â€Å"tired.† That’s telling. Showing would paint a picture the reader could see in her mind’s eye. If your character is tall, your reader can deduce that because you mention others looking up when they talk with him. Or he has to duck to get through a door. Or when posing for a photo, he has to bend his knees to keep his head in proximity of others. Rather than telling that your character is angry, show it by describing his face flushing, his throat tightening, his voice rising, his slamming a fist on the table. When you show, you don’t have to tell. Cold? Don’t tell me; show me. Your character pulls her collar up, tightens her scarf, shoves her hands deep into her pockets, turns her face away from the biting wind. Tired? He can yawn, groan, stretch. His eyes can look puffy. His shoulders could slump. Another character might say, â€Å"Didn’t you sleep last night? You look shot.† When you show rather than tell, you make the reader part of the experience. Rather than having everything simply imparted to him, he sees it in his mind and comes to the conclusions you want. What could be better than engaging your reader- giving him an active role in the storytelling- or should I say the story-showing? Show, Dont Tell Examples Telling: When they embraced she could tell he had been smoking and was scared. Showing: When she wrapped her arms around him, the sweet staleness of tobacco enveloped her, and he was shivering. Telling: The temperature fell and the ice reflected the sun. Showing: Bills nose burned in the frigid air, and he squinted against the sun reflecting off the street. Telling: Suzie was blind. Showing: Suzie felt for the bench with a white cane. Telling: It was late fall. Showing: Leaves crunched beneath his feet. Telling: She was a plumber and asked where the bathroom was. Showing: She wore coveralls carried a plunger and metal toolbox, and wrenches of various sizes hung from a leather belt around her waist. â€Å"Point me to the head,† she said. Telling: I had a great conversation with Tim over dinner and loved hearing his stories. Showing: I barely touched my food, riveted by Tim. â€Å"Let me tell you another story,† he said. Is Telling Ever Acceptable? Yes, it’s a mistake to take show, don’t tell as inviolable. While summary narrative is largely frowned upon, sometimes it’s a prudent choice. If there’s no value to the plot/tension/conflict/character arc by showing some mundane but necessary information, telling is preferable. For instance, say you have to get your character to an important meeting and back, before the real action happens. Maybe he has to get clearance from his superiors before he can lead a secret raid. Rather than investing several pages showing every aspect of the trip from packing, dressing, getting a cab to the airport, going through security, boarding the plane, arriving at his destination- you quickly tell that this way: Three days later, after a trip to Washington to get the operation sanctioned by his superiors, Casey packed his weapons and camo clothes and set out to recruit his crew. Then you immediately return to showing mode, describing his visits to trusted compatriots and getting them on board. Why the Book Is Usually Better Than the Movie    The theater of the reader’s mind is more powerful than anything Hollywood can put on the screen. Well-written books trigger the theater of the mind and allow readers to create their own visual. Your writing can do the same if you master showing rather than telling. Need help fine-tuning your writing?  Click here to download my free self-editing checklist. Have another question about showing vs. telling? Ask me in the comments.

How Geographic Differences Influenced American Artists essays

How Geographic Differences Influenced American Artists essays How Geographic Differences Influenced American Artists Grant Wood and Fredric Remington were both American artist who painted on oil and canvas during the early part of the twentieth century. Grant Wood is best known for depicting American farmers during the 1930s. Fredric Remington is best know for painting the American West during the late ninetieth and early twentieth centuries. Their subject matters and painting techniques are vastly different. The oil on canvas painting Parson Weems Fable was painted by American Artist Grant Wood. Wood was an American artist who through his depiction of outdoor scenes combining a bright Fauve palette and a loose, impressionistic style. Wood painted during the early part of the twentieth century. Raised by Quaker parents his accessible, representational paintings showed reassuring American subjects tied to enduring myths about the perfection of agrarian life. Woods paintings reflected his surroundings as a young child. The painting looks as though you are being shown the subjects through the window by the man pulling the drapes back. The painting has abstract details such as the miniature The various shades of bright colors show many details. The various shades of green create detail and emphasis in the painting. The gray clouds moving in on the blue-sky emphasiss the idea of the calm before the storm. The shadows of the characters in the paining add detail. The vivid colors used on Washington and his father let the viewer know their importance. The man showing the painting is wearing a gray jacket. The paint thickness is the same throughout the paining. The brush strokes are smooth and do not take away from the message of the painting. The angle created by the two colors of the green grass creates a vocal point on the tree. The angle of the side of the building creates a diagonal line towards the tree. The ...

Development and Poverty Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Development and Poverty - Term Paper Example The concept, however, has been in existence in the West for centuries. Modernization, Westernization, and especially Industrialization are other terms people have used when discussing economic development. Although no one is sure when the concept originated, most people agree that development is closely bound up with the evolution of capitalism and the demise of feudalism.† (University of Iowa's Center for International Finance and Development) To improve the economic stability, the government of a country must aims at directing its policies in the right directions. It should endeavor to achieve some basic objectives, such as price control, increasing employment and trade opportunities. The government should strive hard to improve the civil and social infrastructure, like highways, affordable housing for its people, so that the overall economy of the country booms and its benefit is transferred to the people at grass root level. The Human Development Index (HDI) is a compound a nd complex guide to rank the countries of the world by their level of human development. It differentiates the countries into four categories, which are "very high human development", "high human development", "medium human development", and "low human development" countries. ... Poverty The unavailability of material possession, finances and basic human need such as shelter, food etc refers to the poverty of the people of a particular country. Basic human necessities, such as food, water, shelter, education, health, nutrition etc are the responsibility of the government. But when the government fails to provide its people these facilities then the people are forced to live a life of poverty. The poverty threshold or the poverty line is the minimum level of income which is required to access these basic needs. People who are not even able to access these fundamental needs are said to be living a life below the poverty line. It is estimated that about 1.7 billion people across the globe are living their lives below the poverty line. Poverty is the worst form of violence. (Mohandas Gandhi)   There are many ways of measuring the poverty of the people of a particular region. Among them are the Gini Coefficient and the Headcount Index. The Gini Coefficient was d eveloped by an Italian statistician Corrado Gini. It is a measure of the statistical dispersion and measures the inequality of a distribution. It tells how wealth is distributed in a particular region, or among the different classes living in the society. The Headcount Index gives the proportion of the people who are forced to live a life below the poverty line. If â€Å"p† people are considered to be living below the poverty line in a population of â€Å"n†, then the Headcount Index â€Å"H† can be calculated as H=p/n. To calculate the Headcount Index, the estimates of the individual economic condition and the poverty line of that particular region is required. Poverty in South America South America is a region of the world which has a very high poverty rate even

Time Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Time Management - Research Paper Example Notably, time is constant and scarce and hence this topic seeks to define the need and methods that help college students to develop effective strategies to manage their time for purposes of balancing the conflicting demands of study time, working hours, leisure time, and other endeavors that limit study time. In college education, time management is significant in revising for examinations, attending lectures, and participating in sporting activities. I chose this topic because traditional students always lack enough time to do everything they need in college. As such, this topic will inform the students on the need and methods of planning and controlling the amount of time spent on certain activities with an aim of increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of their academic pursuit. This topic is significant in that it informs the students on the benefits of proper time management as well as the academic problems. Proper time management in college may involve future planning, monitoring the allocation of available time, goal setting, and prioritizing tasks. Numerous tools, skills, and techniques will help the students to accomplish their goals and tasks within the set deadlines. Such methods may include goal setting, prioritizing tasks, monitoring the academic pursuit, creating a list, organizing a work schedule, and limiting procrastination. Through effective time management, college students will enjoy certain benefits that may include good performance, establishing conducive learning environment.

Not Specified Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Not Specified - Essay Example as in the case of the European Union), on the basis of conventions like the English Common Law, and on theocratic basis (as in the case of Islamic nations). This essay examines the legal issues vis-Ã  -vis management of engineering organisations in an advanced democratic country like the UK. It is appropriate, at this stage, to put forth the argument concerning the topic. Legal issues may be irksome for effective management of engineering organisations but there is no gain saying the fact that the legal rules provide a definitive and helpful background for professional management. The existence of a body of established law helps in smooth running of an organisation and conducting of its business in a predictable manner. Irksome laws and legal rules are certainly there, if viewed from the narrow perspective of a few organisations or a few managers but in the final analysis, one realises that laws evolve with the collective wisdom of the society and hence are to be accepted in the larger context. For example, the safety, health and environmental laws or corporate governance laws may appear to be intrusive, irksome and expensive to implement. But it is proved time and again that in the ultimate analysis, compliance is more economical than paying the price of damages or clean up costs. The prime examples of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy (Pratima, 1998) of the Union Carbide or the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Bligh Reef near Alaska (Thinkquest) testify to this harsh reality. Engineering organisations are formed to provide goods and services in exchange for a consideration, usually payment of money. This simple definition points out the stakeholders involved in the process of setting up and running of engineering organisations. They can be identified at the broad level as the employees, customers, vendors, investors / financial institutions, and the statutory authorities. All engineering organisations are legal entities, separate from the promoters or owners. To this extent,

Equality and Diversity Essay Example for Free

Equality and Diversity Essay This essay examines the key factors that influence inclusive learning and teaching in the lifelong learning sector. Teaching methods will vary according to what you want to get out of the session, what the learners are able to achieve within the time frame, what materials and resources are available, what you are teaching, the needs of the learners and your personal style. This could be formal, informal or a mixture of both. Formal teaching methods include lecturers, demonstrations and presentations. Informal teaching includes discussions, group work and practical activities. As I will be teaching within the Beauty Therapy my lessons would be a mixture of both these delivery methods. Each activity within the classroom will consist of teaching and learning activities which are balanced to meet the different needs of my learners. Blended learning incorporates both traditional and computer based methods. This is commonly referred to as Information learning technology (ICT) this use of computer based technology to enhance teaching methods and resources or develop learner autonomy is widely promoted. The other main teaching methods other than ICT I am opting to use are lecturers and demonstrations. These demonstrations are very important as it would show the students the beauty routine that we would expect them to follow within their practical sessions. This ensures that students will be working to the same standard and will also adhere to the requirements of the awarding body. Practical sessions also help to explain difficult parts of the task when verbal exposition in not enough. I would also use group work activities, these particularly suit kinaesthetic learners but also when you have a group consisting of various abilities it allows both weak and strong learners to work collectively. Question and Answer sessions will be most commonly used in my tutorials. If I was teaching for example ‘the bones and muscles of the body) I would ask students to identify where muscles are on the body to help promote learning. At the start of the course the approach I will use to facilitate inclusive learning will be to carry out an initial assessment. This will help me identify what type of learners they are, I would then plan my teaching sessions to meet these individual needs by using a mix of visual, auditory, kinaesthetic teaching and learning strategies. For example I had just completed a practical demonstration to my group on ‘a facial routine’, I wanted to make sure my learners could confidently work in pairs and practice this routine on each other. A task like this would suit the kinaesthetic because he/she is provided with an opportunity to do and learn, and for the visual learner I would produce a step by step illustrated hand-out to support the routine. The Equality Act 2010 outlines protective characteristics which promote equality within schools and colleges and prevent discrimination. This includes sexuality, sex, disability, marital status and religion. In order to promote equality in my classroom I will need to respond positively to the diverse needs of all learners. Effective communication with learners is essential and it is the teacher’s responsibility to ensure that learners understand appropriate vocabulary and terminology and that comments are not discriminatory or offensive. As a teacher I would keep language simple so that if I have a learner from different backgrounds they may not have the same level of English as British learners. Resources used such as hand-outs, assignments and work sheets will also aim to promote equality and diversity. For example I would produce worksheets in a gender free language and also aim to promote multiculturalism by producing scenario based worksheets that use names from various ethnic backgrounds. I would also pace my sessions so students have plenty of time to take notes and ask any questions. Although inclusion is about supporting learners’ needs. It is not always possible for teachers to do this without support themselves. All teachers should be aware of the limits of their own responsibility and know when and where to access support for learners. you will not be able to get students to solve all their own difficulties. Get to know and use your institutions student services or pastoral support system: it exists to support your students, and you, so do refer where it is appropriate† Petty 2004 There are many places of referral within education; these can be both internal within the education establishment or an external organisation. The internal places of referral may inc lude student support services, learner study support centre, and counselling and careers advice. If I had a student for example who needed help with writing their essay I would arrange for them to go to the learner study support centre who would be able to assist Learners with learning difficulties or disabilities may need additional support and may need a designated support worker to support them within the classroom. A learner with dyslexia may find it hard to read text or numbers or have difficulty with writing and spelling, therefore I would produce written hand-outs and allow learners with dyslexia to present their ideas verbally or tape notes if necessary. Political correctness is a commonly used term at the moment and is used to ensure that expressions do not cause offence to any particular group of people. There are also many external agencies where learners can be referred, and which agency they are referred to would depend on the individual’s needs of the learner. This may include health related issues, family difficulties, poor attendance, or repeated challenging behaviour. The purpose of referring a learner to an external support agency is to support an individual student and to help them overcome their difficulties which are impacting on their education. For example if I had a student who was constantly disruptive in class and had a record of aggressive behaviour I would refer them to the Pupil Referral Unit. They would help and encourage the learner to be involved in the learning process, but in a smaller environment where they be in a much smaller group (3-4 learners) and also receive one-to-one support. Functional skills such as literacy, numeracy and ICT can be easily integrated into my lessons. These activities will meet both literacy and numeracy standards but are more easily understood by the learner. An example of this would be an assignment covering salon duties. I would ask the students to produce a sales ledger for stock to be re-ordered from our supplier. This would include maths as the student would have to calculate the cost of goods and also the total value of the order, it would include English as the student needs to produce the document and ICT as the student would have to present it in a typed format. The best way to establish ground rules with my learners is to negotiate them. The rules should be appropriate and fair and agreed as a whole class. As a teacher, I would establish ground rules during the first session, and plan a short activity around this. The class could discuss what is expected of them and write the rules in small groups. I would also list a few ground rules and then negotiate them as a class. This gives all learners the opportunity to be included and involved and as they have decided on the rules they are also more likely to respect them. When establishing ground rules it is important to ensure they are clear and brief and start positively rather than with ‘do not’. Once the rules have been established I would ask the learners to write them on some flipchart paper and hang them up in the class so that they are visible to all. It is also important to reinforce the rules consistently and to phrase learners when rules have been adhered to. I feel this method would motivate learners and also model good behaviour. Some rules may not be able to be negotiated. For example when the students come into class they must be wearing their salon uniforms and hair must be tied back. As a teacher even though I have designed my lessons to meet everyone’s needs I still need to ensure that my learners are motivated and want to learn. Maslow (1970) argues that basic needs such a food, safety, love and belonging and self-esteem need to be met in order for them to achieve their goals and aspirations. Everyone is motivated through either Intrinsic (because they want to learn) or extrinsic motivators (because they have to i. e. better job prospects). â€Å"A good teacher will play to the strengths of the learner when trying to raise enthusiasm in learning† Wilson 2004 – page 188 Other theories of motivation that can be used to motivate learners include the goal orientated theory, based on desire to be rewarded for achievement. A learner is given a clear direction or task and when it is reached there is a reward. For example I would set a group task for my learners to complete within the lesson. If they finish before the end of the lesson they are allowed an early break. If they don’t complete the task at the by the end of the session they will have to complete as homework. Albert Bandura (1994) suggested that an individual’s belief in themselves and their ability is related to what they can achieve. An example of how this can be applied into the classroom is to encourage my learner to try, and re-explain the topic if they are unsure. Through coaching and reassurance I will enable that learner to achieve. Giving effective feedback will help to improve the confidence of learners and develop their potential. Feedback should be delivered promptly and be a two way process. I would ask the learner how they think they did and get an idea if their understanding of the topic. Even if I had negative feedback to give to my learner I would end with a positive statement to incite the learner to take my comments on board and leave them feeling more positive about their performance. To conclude I suggest that inclusive teaching can only take place if both equality and diversity are positively promoted. Inclusive teaching relies on a range of differentiation strategies which may include adapted resources or additional classroom support. Depending on individual learner needs, learners may need to be referred to internal or external places of referral for extra support. .

Neural structures: Subserving psychological function

Neural structures: Subserving psychological function This essay will evaluate what is known about the role of neural structures in subserving emotion. It was concluded that although emotion is a difficult behaviour to study scientifically, clear importance of the role of the amygdala has been found. Nonetheless, other structures and brain regions are involved in the responses to emotion, and how they interact together is an area in need of further investigation. Neural networks have been defined by Colman (2009) as a system of interconnected neurons. These systems can be either in the nervous system or in the brain. This essay will focus on the role of these neural structures in emotion. Colman (2009) defined emotion as a short-term evaluative, affective and intentional psychological state. The cognitive neuroscience of emotion has been slow to become widely recognised, as emotion is a behaviour that is difficult to study in a systematic manner. Recently however researchers have been challenging this gap in knowledge, and as a result, emotion is quickly emerging as a critical research topic (Gazzaniga, Ivry Mangun, 2009). BASIC HUMAN EMOTIONS Ekman and Friesen (1971) set out to find the basic human facial representations. From their cross-cultural work they suggested that anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness and surprise are the six basic human facial expressions that represent all emotional states. Despite there still being considerable debate about whether a single list is enough to incorporate all emotional experiences, it is generally agreed that these are the basic, universal human emotions (Gazzaniga et al., 2009); these emotions will therefore be the ones focused on later in the essay. HOW RESEARCH HAS DEVELOPED Early research into the cognitive neuroscience of emotion mainly focused on identifying the limbic system as the emotional brain (MacLean, 1949). Recently research has been focused on specific types of emotional tasks and identifying the neural systems underlying specific emotional behaviours. It is no longer thought that there is simply one neural circuit of emotion, rather that there are usually a number of different neural systems involved, dependant on the emotional situation (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). THE ROLE OF THE AMYGDALA The amygdala is a small structure in the medial temporal lobe. This structure has been a focus of research on emotional processing in the brain since Weiskrantz (1956, as cited in Gazzaniga et al., 2009) identified the amygdala as the primary medial temporal lobe structure underlying the fear related deficits in a medical condition known as KlÃÆ' ¼ver-Bucy syndrome. The amygdala receives inputs from every sensory system and is thought to be the structure where the emotional significance of sensory signals is learned and retained (Pinel, 2008). Sergerie, Chochol and Armony (2008) carried out a meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies looking at the role of the amygdala in emotional processing. Previously many functional neuroimaging studies have given solid support for an important role of the amygdala in negative emotional processing (Sergerie et al., 2008). The rationale behind this study was to address the issue of whether factors such as sex, valence and stimulus type have an effect on the magnitude and lateralization of amygdala reaction. The results confirmed that the amygdala reacts to both positive and negative emotional stimuli, particularly when participants were exposed to faces showing emotional expressions (Sergerie et al., 2008). Differences were not found in amygdala lateralization as a function of sex or valence. Strong support was also shown for a functional dissociation between the left and right amygdala in terms of temporal dynamics. The findings of this study indicate that the amygdala is involv ed in the processing of positive emotion as well as negative emotion. Following the large amount of empirical evidence showing the role of the amygdala in emotional processing, LeDoux (1996) warned that it may be tempting to conclude that the amygdala is at the centre of emotion reaction in the brain. This would be erroneous however, as there are clearly other structures involved in emotional processing. For the role of the neural system in emotion to be fully understood, further research is needed into the other structures involved. THE ROLE OF THE MEDIAL FRONTAL LOBES Recently, functional brain imaging studies have shown evidence of activity within the medial frontal lobes whilst emotions are being both cognitively suppressed or re-evaluated (Quirk Beer, 2006). The latest studies of medial prefrontal lobe activity have used suppression paradigms (where participants are told to suppress their emotional reactions to unpleasant images) or reappraisal paradigms (where participants are asked to try to reinterpret an image to adjust their emotional reaction to it) (Quirk Beer, 2006). The medial frontal lobes have been found to be active when both of these paradigms have been studied, and it seems that they interact with the amygdala to exert their cognitive control of emotion (Holland and Gallagher, 2004). These studies show that the medial frontal lobes have a role in the processing of emotion; further investigation is required in this area to reveal exactly what role this structure plays and how it interacts with other structures in the brain. THE REGULATION OF EMOTION Mak, Hu, Zhang, Xiao and Lee (2009) investigated the regulation of emotion through functional magnetic resonance imaging. The study identified neural correlates of the regulation of positive or negative emotion. The study of the regulation of emotion is important, as dysregulation of emotion is associated with the inability to modulate intense emotions that may worsen affective disorders (Mak et al., 2009). Whilst either viewing emotional pictures or regulating their emotions induced by these pictures, participants brain activities were monitored (Mak et al., 2009). The neuroimaging findings showed that the left superior and lateral frontal regions were common neural correlates of regulation for both emotions. The prefrontal regions and the left insula were found to be associated with regulation of positive emotion, while activity in the left orbitofrontal gyrus, the left superior frontal gyrus and the anterior cingulated gyrus appear to be associated with regulation of negative emot ion. In conclusion, Mak et al. (2009) suggested that there are both shared and specific neuro-cognitive mechanisms involved in the regulation of positive and negative emotions. If knowledge was to be enhanced into the neural mechanism behind emotion regulation, the understanding of the complex interaction between emotion and basic human behaviours could be improved. Through understanding the neural mechanisms behind emotion regulation, helpful insights could be provided into the biological basis of mental health (Mak et al., 2009). THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Several studies into the neural mechanisms of emotion have focused on individual differences. One of these studies, by Adolphs et al. (1999) tested how well nine neuropsychological patients with bilateral amygdala damage could identify emotion in facial expressions. As previously reported, the group as a whole was found to have problems identifying the emotion of fear (Adolphs et al., 1999). There were however, individual differences amongst the patients; some had difficulty identifying other negative emotions whereas two of the patients had no problem identifying emotions in facial expressions at all. Adolphà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s et al. (1999) said that remarkably these latter two patients had total bilateral amygdala lesions as revealed by structural MRIà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s. Canli, Sivers, Whitfield, Gotlib and Gabrieli (2002) used functional MRIs to look at the differences between the reactions of healthy participants who scored high in extraversion (who tend to have positive emotional reactions) and those who scored high on neuroticism (who have a tendency towards negative emotional reactions). It was found that all of the participants showed increased activity within the amygdala when viewing images of fearful faces, however only extraverts showed increased amygdala activity from viewing images of happy faces (Canli et al., 2002). These two studies indicate that individual differences affect the roles of neural structures in relation to emotion (Adolphs et al., 1999; Canli et al., 2002). This suggests that neural structures may play varying roles in experiencing emotion depending on the person, meaning that research into the roles of neural structures needs to consider differences between individuals for their findings to be relevant. A case study into one individual may show certain roles of a neural structure in emotional processing, however in another person this role may be slightly different. NEURAL NETWORK MODELLING OF SPECIFIC EMOTIONS Previously, the majority of the research into the neural network modelling of emotion has differentiated positive versus negative affect. Recently however, neural network modelling of specific emotions is beginning to emerge (Levine, 2006). The emotions mainly focused on in this research are the ones that were distinguished by Ekman and Friesen (1971), as mentioned earlier. THE NEURAL BASIS OF ANGER Blair, Morris, Frith, Perrett and Dolan (1999) carried out a study into the neural basis of anger. To do this they exposed subjects to either neutral or increasingly angry facial expressions while analyzing the areas of brain activation associated with the gradient of the intensity of anger. Blair et al. (1999) found the right orbitofrontal cortex became increasingly active when subjects were exposed to increasingly angry faces. These results suggest that the orbitofrontal cortex plays a role in explicit emotional labelling of angry faces. The role of the orbitofrontal cortex was further demonstrated by Sander et al. (2005). Participants were presented with meaningless phrases spoken with neutral prosody in one ear, and with angry prosody in the other. Participants were told to either attend to one ear or the other. It was found that activity in the right amygdala and superior temporal sulcus was changed independent of attention. Alternatively, the orbitofrontal cortex was only activated when the angry prosody had been attended to. This finding implies further that the orbitofrontal cortex is important for the explicit processing of anger. What now should be investigated is whether, and to what extent, individual differences have an effect; this could potentially help people who have problems with their anger by identifying the differences so that a solution can be found. THE NEURAL BASIS OF SADNESS Using the same paradigm, Blair et al. (1999) also investigated the neural basis of sadness. They found both the left amygdala and the right temporal lobe demonstrated activity linked with the intensity of sad expressions. These findings have however been contradicted by other recent studies. Adolphs and Tranel (2004) used a more sensitive approach, which involved the participants rating the intensity of an emotion rather than labelling it. They found that damage in the right amygdala caused a greater deficit in identifying sad faces when compared to damage to the left amygdala. Adolphs and Tranel (2004) believed that this difference in conclusions may have been due to the more insightful approach. There has not been much agreement for the neural basis of sadness, therefore this is an area of emotion which requires further research so that the roles of neural structures can be clarified. THE NEURAL BASIS OF FEAR Fear conditioning has become the preferred method of investigating fear as the source of fear is unambiguous and the development of the fear response can be systematically investigated (Pinel, 2008). Romanski and LeDoux (1992) studied the neural mechanisms of auditory fear conditioning by creating lesions in the auditory pathways of rats. It was found that bilateral lesions of the medial geniculate nucleus blocked fear conditioning to a tone; bilateral lesions of the auditory cortex however did not. The findings suggest that signals created by the tone only have to be able to reach the medial geniculate nucleus, not the auditory cortex, for auditory fear conditioning to occur. This also indicates that a pathway plays a crucial role in fear conditioning, going from the medial geniculate cortex to a structure other than the auditory cortex; this structure was proved to be the amygdala (Romanski LeDoux, 1992). They then found that lesions in the amygdala also blocked fear conditioning. Romanski and LeDoux (1992) argued that just because auditory cortex lesions do not disrupt fear conditioning does not mean that this structure is not involved in auditory fear conditioning. This is because there are two pathways from the medial geniculate nucleus to the amygdala. These are the auditory thalamus, and the auditory cortex; the indirect one, capable of mediating fear conditioning to more complex sounds (Jarrell et al., 1987, as cited in Pinel, 2008). Similarly, Armony et al. (1997) proposed a brain-based neural network model of auditory fear conditioning. Included are parallel cortical and subcortical pathways, reaching the primary emotional processing areas of the amygdala, as also shown by LeDoux (1996). It has been found that the subcortical pathway is quicker than the cortical, however the cortex performs more precise discrimination than the thalamus pathway. This finding suggests that the two pathways are involved in performing complementary functions; the subcortical pathway is vital in the presence of potentially dangerous stimuli where a fast response is crucial, and the cortical pathway is more useful where more detailed evaluations of stimuli are needed (Armony et al., 1997). Studies into fear have continually identified the amygdala as the main brain structure involved in the acquisition, storage and expression of conditioned fear (Armony et al., 1995;1997, Romanski LeDoux, 1992), therefore the role of the amygdala in fear conditioning is a widely accepted and stable notion. THE NEURAL BASIS OF SURPRISE Not many studies have investigated the emotion of surprise, however it is believed that surprise has important survival value, and therefore must be accessed early in the course of sensory processing (Plutchik Kellerman, 1986). To enable this, direct inputs to the amygdala from primary pathways provide this access, modulated by the swift habituation of sensory evoked responses in the amygdala. Because of this rapid action, surprise tends to be a short lived emotion, which leads on to another emotional state (Plutchik Kellerman, 1986); potentially making surprise a difficult emotion to study. THE NEURAL BASIS OF DISGUST Generally throughout the study of the neural basis of disgust, there has been a broad consensus that at least one area, the anterior insula, is crucial for both the detection and feeling of disgust (Philips et al., 1998). Based on imaging studies, this conclusion is in line with a study on a patient with insula damage whom is incapable of detecting disgust within varying modalities (Calder, Keane, Manes, Antoun, Young, 2000). Wicker, Keysers, Plailly, Royet, Gallese and Rizzolatti (2003) supported these findings, and went even further by analysing neural responses while watching others experience disgust, and firsthand experience of disgust. It was observed that in both these conditions the same part of the anterior insula was activated. These findings suggest that maybe understanding the emotions of others could require stimulation, and mildly experiencing, the emotions ourselves. This also implies a potential role of emotion in empathy (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). These findings by Philips et al. (1998), Calder et al. (2000) and Wicker et al. (2003) provide evidence that the insula is a neural correlate of experiencing disgust directly. The study by Wicker et al. (2003) also shows that the insula is essential in identification of disgust in others. Therefore, this indicates that the insula plays a role in the emotion of disgust, however the importance of this role is unknown. NEURAL CORRELATES OF HAPPINESS, SADNESS AND DISGUST An investigation into the neuroanatomical correlates of happiness, sadness and disgust was carried out by Lane, Reiman, Ahern, Schwartz and Davidson (1997). They used positron emission tomography to measure regional brain activity during exposure to happiness, sadness and disgust induced by film and recall. They found that happiness, sadness and disgust were all linked with increased activity in the thalamus and the medial frontal cortex, and also activation of anterior and posterior temporal structures, mainly when the emotions were induced by film. When sadness was recalled this linked with increased activation in the anterior insula; happiness was distinguished from sadness through greater activity around the ventral mesial frontal cortex. Lane et al. (1997) concluded that there seem to be a number of regions in the brain that are involved in emotions, with different combinations of structures concerned in feeling and identifying different emotions. This finding backs up LeDouxà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s (1996) reluctance to conclude that the amygdala is the centre of emotional reaction. EVALUATION OF METHODS Positron emission tomography (PET) is a technique often used in studies investigating co-morbidity. It provides images of brain activity, however these images are not of the brain, they are merely coloured maps giving an indication of the amount of radioactivity in the brain (Pinel, 2008). This means that it can only be estimated how much activity there is in each particular part of the brain, and therefore it is not a particularly accurate method of measuring brain activity in specific regions (Pinel, 2008). Another commonly used method of investigating brain activity in cognitive neuroscience is functional MRI (fMRI). The main strength of fMRI is that it provides both structural and functional information about the brain in one image (Posner Raichel, 1997), therefore revealing the brain function. This gives it an advantage over PET as a more precise image is produced (Pinel, 2008). Other advantages of this method over PET are that it provides a better spatial resolution, and three-dimensional images can be produced showing activity in the entire brain (Pinel, 2008). This information suggests that studies into the role of neural structures in emotion may be more reliable if the evidence comes from fMRI measurements, as a more accurate indication of which brain regions are activated at a certain time is given. CONCLUSION Through examining the literature surrounding the role of neural structures in emotion, it can be concluded that neural structures do play an important role. However, the significance of the role of neural structures in comparison to other factors, such as individual differences is still not clear. It has been proposed that neural structures have differing functions in the experience of emotion depending on the individual (Adolphs et al., 1999; Canli et al., 2002). This suggests that further research is needed in the field of individual differences to find these underlying factors, so that the function of neural structures can be more fully understood. Many challenges are faced in the study of emotion, as it is a behaviour that is difficult to define, manipulate and study with a scientific approach (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). Even so, investigation into the cognitive neuroscience of emotion has generally emphasized the importance of the role of the amygdala. The function of this structure in the response of emotion has been greatly influenced by research into animals; in both humans and other species the fact that the amygdala plays a vital role in the fear response has been demonstrated (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). The role of the amygdala is not the only structure researched in trying to identify the neural correlates involved in emotion, as recently different emotions have successfully been associated with other neural structures, including the orbitofrontal cortex in anger (Blair et al., 1999), and the insula, involved in disgust (Wicker et al., 2003). Nevertheless, an emerging change in the way the cognitive neuroscience of emotion is moving the emphasis from the study of individual neural structures to the investigation of neural systems (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). It is clear that the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex and insula are vital in the processing of emotion. It is now important that in order to enable how the brain produces both normal and adaptive emotional responses to be understood, the way that these structures interact together (with each other and with other brain regions) and the effect of individual differences needs to be investigated. FURTHER READING Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B., Mangun, G. R. (2009). (See References). Gives a general overview of the neural networks involved in emotion, particularly the amygdala. Plutchik, R. Kellerman, H. (1986). (See References). Gives more in depth detail of the networks involved in specific emotions. Sergerie, K., Chochol, C., Armony, J. L. (2008). (See References). Looks at previous research into the role of the amygdala in emotional processing which gives new information regarding previously proposed models.